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Download Link. Moreover Medicalstudyzone. If you feel that we have violated your copyrights, then please contact us immediately. They usually occur in the developing bone and do not fuse completely. They look like extra bones or broken on X-ray. Sutural wormian bones are examples of accessory bones. Figure: 5. Gross anatomy of a typical long bone You can take Tibia in the leg one of the longest bones in the body. In adults it have: Diaphis, the tubular shaft, hallow cylindrical with walls of compact bone tissue.
The center of the cylinder is the medullary cavity, which is filled with marrow. Epiphysis is roughly spherical end of the bone. It is wider than the shaft. Flat and irregular bones of the trunk and limbs have many epiphysis and the Figure: 5. It is made up of epiphyseal plate and adjacent bony trabeculae of cancellous bone tissue.
The red marrow also known as myeloid tissue Endosteum is the lining the medullary cavity of compact bone tissue and covering the trabeculae of spongy bone tissue. Periosteum: it is covering the outer surface of the bone.
It is absent at joints and replaced by articular cartilage. A network of collagenous fibers in the matrix gives bone tissue its strength and flexibility. Most bones have an outer sheet of compact bone tissue enclosing an interior spongy bone tissue. It is very hard and dense. It appears to naked eye to be solid but not. Compact bone tissue contains cylinders of calcified bone known as osteons Haversion system.
Osteons are made up of concentric layers called lamellae, which are arranged seemingly in wider and wider drinking straws. In the center of the osteons are central canals haversion canal , which are longitudinal canals that contains blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic vessels. Lacunae Little spaces that houses osteocytes bone cells are contained in lamella. Radiating from each lacuna are tiny canaliculi containing the slender extensions of the osteocytes where nutrients and wastes can pass to and from central canal.
Spongy cancellous Bone tissue Is in the form of an open interlaced pattern that withstands maximum stress and supports in shifting stress.
Trabeculae are tiny spikes of bone tissue surrounded by bone matrix that has calcified. They found mostly in the deepest layer of periosteum and endosteum. They have high mitotic potential and can be transformed into bone forming cells osteoblasts. They have a cell body that occupies a lacuna. Osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts. They together with osteoclasts play an important role of homeostasis by helping to release calcium. Osteoclasts are derived from white blood cells called monocytes.
They are believed to be derived from osteoblast that ceases their physiological activity. Bone in embryo develops in two ways: Intra-membranous ossification, If bone develops directly from mesenchymal tissue. Examples are vault of the skull, flat bones and part of the clavicle. In this type of ossification development continues rapidly from the center.
Endochondrial Ossification, When bone tissue develops by replacing hyaline cartilage. Endochondrial ossification produces long bones and all other bones not formed by intra-membranous ossification. Table 5. Depression and openings Fissure narrow, cleft like opening between adjacent parts of bone. Example: Supra of orbital fissure. Foramen, a bigger, round opening. Example: Foramen magnum.
Meatus: a relatively narrow tubular canal. Example: External auditory meatus Groves and sulcus: are deep furrow on the surface of a bone or other structure. Example: Inter-vertebral and radial groves of humers. Fossa: shallow depressed area. Example: Mandibular fossa. Example Medial condyle of femur Head, expanded, rounded surface at proximal end of a bone often joined to shaft by a narrowed neck. Example: Head of femur Facet: small, flat surface. Example: Articular facet of ribs.
Example: Greater tubercle of humerus. Tuberosity: it is large, round roughened process. Example: ischeal tuberosity. Trochanter: it is a large, blunt projection found only on femur Crest is a prominent ridge. Example: Iliac crest. Line: it is a less prominent ridge than a crest. Spinous process spine is a sharp, slender process. Example Ischeal spin Epicondyle is a prominence above condyle.
Example medial Epicondyle of Femur 5. These are the axial and appendicular skeleton. The Axial skeleton consist bones that lie around the axis.
And the appendicular skeleton consist bones of the body out of the axial group. These are appendages. Technically, the hyoid bone is not part of the skull. Technically, the term arm refers to the upper extremity between the shoulder and elbow; the forearm is between the elbow and wrist. The upper part of the lower extremity, between the pelvis and knee, is the thigh; the leg is between the knees an ankle. The skull rests on the superior of vertebral column.
It is composed of cranial and facial bones. Made up of horizontal, cribriform plate, median perpendicular plate, paired lateral masses; contains ethmoidal sinuses, crista galli, superior and middle conchae.
Forms roof of nasal cavity and septum, part of cranium floor; site of attachment for membranes covering brain. Frontal 1 Anterior and superior parts of cranium, forehead, brow areas. Shaped like large scoop; frontal squama forms forehead; orbital plate forms roof of orbit; supraorbital ridge forms brow ridge; contains frontal sinuses, supraorbital foramen.
Protects front of brain; contains passageway for nerves, blood vessels. Occipital 1 Posterior part of cranium, including base. Slightly curved plate, With turned- up edges; made up of squamous, base, and two lateral parts; contains foramen magnum, occipital condyles, hypo-glossal canals, atlanto-occipital joint, external occipital crest and protuberance. Protects posterior part of brain; forms foramina for spinal cord and nerves; site of attachment for muscles, ligaments.
Parietal 2 Superior sides and roof of cranium, between frontal and occipital bones. Broad, slightly convex plates; smooth exteriors and internal depressions. Protect top, sides of brain, passageway for blood vessels. Sphenoid 1 Base of cranium, anterior to occipital and temporal bones. Temporal 2 Sides and base of cranium at temples.
Made up of squamous, petrous, tympanic, mastoid areas; contain zygomatic process, mandibular fossa, ear Ossicles, mastoid sinuses. Form temples, part of cheekbones; articulate with lower jaw; protect ear ossicles; site of attachments for neck muscles.
There are four main sutures in the skull. Fontanels The skeleton of a newly formed embryo consist cartilage or fibrous membrane structures, which gradually replaced by bone the process is called ossification. At birth membrane filled spaces on the skull are called fontanel. They are found between cranial bones. It closes 18 to 24 months after birth. It is also diamond shaped but smaller than the anterior fontanel.
It closes 2 months after birth. Found at the junction of parietal, occiputal and temporal bones. They are irregular in shape and begin to close at 1 or 2 months after birth and completed by 12 months. Thin, cancellous, shaped like curved leaves.
Lacrimal 2 Medial wall of orbit, behind frontal process of maxilla. Small, thin, rectangular; contains depression for lacrimal sacs, nasolacrimal tear duct. Mandible 1 Lower jaw, extending from chin to mandibular fossa of temporal bone. Largest, strongest facial bone; horseshoe-shaped horizontal bony with two perpendicular rami; contains tooth sockets, coronoid, condylar, alveolar processes, mental foramina.
Maxillae 2 Upper jaw and anterior part of hard palate. Made up of zygomatic, frontal, palatine, alveolar processes; contain infraorbital foramina, maxillary sinuses, tooth sockets. Form upper jaw, front of hard palate, part of eye sockets. Small, oblong; attached to a nasal cartilage. Form supports for bridge of upper nose.
Palatine 2 Posterior part of hard palate, floor of nasal cavity and orbit; posterior to maxillae. L-shaped, with horizontal and vertical plates; contain greater and lesser palatine foramina. Horizontal plate forms posterior part of hard palate; vertical plate forms part of wall of nasal cavity, floor of orbit. Vomer 1 Posterior and inferior part of nasal septum. Thin, shaped like plowshare.
Forms posterior and inferior nasal septum dividing nasal cavities. Zygomatic 2 Cheekbones below and lateral to orbit. Curved lateral part of molar cheekbones; made up of temporal process, zygomatic arch; contain zygomatico-facial and zygomatico-temporal foramina. Hyoid 1 Below root of tongue, above larynx. U-shaped, suspended from styloid process of temporal bone; site of attachment for some muscles used in speaking, swallowing.
Ossicles of ear Inside cavity of petrous portion of temporal bone. Convey sound vibrations stapes 2 from eardrum to oval window see Chapter It is formed by bones of the skull. In the orbit there are openings that pass structures.
Some of the principal openings and And the structures passing through are: Optic foramen canal passes optic nerve Superior orbital fissure passes supra orbit nerve and artery. Inferior orbital fissure passes maxillary branch of trigeminal and zygomatic nerve and infra orbital vessel. Supra orbital foramen notch passes occulomotor, trochlear, ophthalmic branch of trigeminal and abducent nerves. Canal for naso lacrimal duct passes naso lacrimal duct.
The adult vertebral column contains 26 vertebras. They are fibro-cartilaginous. Each disc is composed of the outer fibrous ring consisting fibro-cartilage called annulus fibrosis and the inner soft, pulpy highly elastic structure called the nucleus pulpous. The disc permits various movement of the vertebral column, absorb shock and form a strong joint. These are normal curves of the vertebral column. There are 4 normal curves formed by vertebras, two are concave and the other two are convex.
In the age of the fetus there is only a single anterior concave curve, but approximately the third post natal month, when the child begin to hold head erect, the cervical curve develops. Later when the child sits up, stands and walks the lumbar curve develops. The thoracic and sacral curves are anteriorly concave, since they retain the anterior concavity of the fetal curve they are referred primary curves.
The vertebral column and vertebral curves source: Carola, R. It consist the body, vertebral arch and seven processes. The body Centrum , thick, disc shaped, anterior part. It has superior and inferior roughened area for attachment with intervertebral discs.
The vertebral neural arch extends posterior from the body of the vertebrae. With the body it surrounds the spinal cord. It is formed by two short, thick process called pedicles.
It projects posteriorly to meet at laminae. The laminae are flat parts that join to form the posterior portion of the vertebral arch. The space that lies between the vertebral arch and body contains the spinal cord called vertebral foramina. The vertebral foramina of all vertebras together form the vertebral spinal canal.
Intervertibral foramen is an opening between the vertebras that serves as passage of nerves that come out of spinal cord to supply the various body parts. There are seven processes that arise from the vertebral arch at the point where the lamina and pedicle joins. The remaining four processes form joints with other vertebra. Two of them articulate with the immediate superior vertebra.
And the other two articulate with the immediate inferior vertebra. Atlas supports head, permits "yes" motion of head at joint between skull and atlas; axis Permits "no" motion at joint between axis and atlas. Thoracic vertebrae 12 Bodies and transverse processes have facets that articulate T1-T12 with ribs; laminae are short, thick, and broad. Articulate with ribs; allow some movement of spine in thoracic area. Lumbar vertebrae 5 Largest, strongest vertebrae; adapted for attachment of back L1-L5 muscles.
Support back mus cles; allow forward and backward bending of spine. Sacrum Wedge-shaped, made up of five fused bodies united by four 5 fused bones intervertebral disks.
Support vertebral column; give strength and stability to pelvis. Coccyx Triangular tailbone, united with sacrum by intervertebral 3 to 5 fused bones disk. Vestige of an embryonic tail. Thorax is a bony cage formed by sternum breast bone , costal cartilage, ribs and bodies of the thoracic vertebra.
The junction of the manubrium and the body forms the sternal angle. The manubrium on its superior portion has a depression called jugular supra sternal notch. The manubrium also articulates with the 1st and 2nd rib. The body of the sternum articulates directly or indirectly with 2nd to 10th rib. The xiphoid process consists hyaline cartilage during infancy and child hood and do not ossify completely up to the age of Ribs increase in length from 1st through 7th and they decrease in length through 12th.
Each ribs posteriorly articulates with the body of its corresponding thoracic vertebra. Anteriorly the 1st seven ribs have direct attachment to sternum by costal cartilage hence they are called true vertebro — sternal ribs. The remaining 5 ribs are called false ribs.
The 8th — 10th ribs, which are groups of the false ribs are called vertebro chondrial ribs because their cartilage attach one another and then attaches to the cartilage of the 7th rib. Although there is variation when we examine a typical rib 3rd to 9th contains a head, neck and body parts. The Head is a projection at posterior end of the rib.
It consist one or two facet that articulate with facet of the vertebra. The neck is constricted portion just lateral to the head. The body shaft is main part of the rib. The costal angle is the site where the rib changes its direction.
The inner side of the costal angle is costal grove. Where thoracic nerves and blood vessels are protected. Connected and supported by the axial skeleton with only shoulder joint and many muscle from a complex of suspension bands from the vertebral column, ribs and sternum to the shoulder girdle. Holds shoulder joint and arm away from thorax so upper limb can swing freely.
Scapula 2 Shoulder blade; flat, triangular bone with horizontal spine separating fossae. Site of attachment for muscles of arm and chest. Arm Humerus 2 Longest, largest bone of upper limb; forms ball of ball- and socket joint with glenoid fossa of scapula. Site of attachment for muscles of shoulder and arm, permitting arm to flex and extend at elbow. Forearm Radius 2 Larger of two bones in forearm; large proximal end consists of olecranon process prominence of elbow.
Forms hinge joint at elbow. Wrist Carpals 16 Small short bones; in each wrist, 8 carpals in 2 transverse rows of 4. With attached ligaments, allow slight gliding movement. Hands and Fingers Metacarpals 10 Five miniature long bones in each hand in fanlike arrangement; articulate with fingers at metacarpo- phalangeal joint the Knuckle. Aid opposition movement of thumb; enable cupping of hand.
Allow fingers to participate in stable grips. The lower extremity is connected to the axial skeleton with the hip girdle. Site of attachment for trunk and lower limb muscles; transmits body weight to femur. Thigh Femur 2 Thighbone; typical long bone; longest, strongest, heaviest bone; forms ball of ball-and-socket joint with pelvic bones; provides articular surface for knee.
Supports body. Patella 2 Kneecap; sesamoid bone within quadriceps femuris tendon. Increases leverage for quadriceps muscle by keeping tendon Away from axis of rotation. Leg Fibula 2 Smaller long bone of lower leg; articulates proximally with tibia and distally with talus. Bears little body weight, but gives strength to ankle joint.
Tibia 2 Larger long bone of lower leg; articulates with femur fibula, talus. Supports body weight, transmitting it from femur to talus. Ankle Tarsals 14 Ankle, heel bones; short bones; 7 in each ankle including talus, calcaneus, cuboid, navicular, 3 cuneiforms; with metatarsals, form arches of foot. Bear body weight; raise body and transmit thrust during running and walking.
Foot and Toes Metatarsals 10 Miniature long bones; 5 in each foot; form sole; with tarsal, form arches of feet. Improve stability while standing; absorb shocks; bear weight; aid in locomotion. Provide stability during locomotion. Source: Elaine n. Beside its function of absorbing shock it prevents nerves and blood vessels in the sole of the foot from being crushed. But movable joints provide the mechanism that allows the body to move.
According to functional classification joints may be immovable synartherosis , slightly movable amphiartherosis and freely movable diarthrosis. The main function of the skeletal system is: a Protection b Storage of minerals c Support d Producing motion e All of the above 2. Which of the following is not part of the appendicular skeleton? The muscular system, however, refers to the skeletal muscle system: the skeletal muscle tissue and connective tissues that makeup individual muscle organs, such as the biceps brachii muscle.
Cardiac muscle tissue is located in the heart and is therefore considered part of the cardiovascular system. Smooth muscle tissue of the intestines is part of the digestive system, whereas smooth muscle tissue of the urinary bladder is part of the urinary system and so on. In this chapter, we discuss only the muscular system. Functions of muscle tissue Through sustained contraction or alternating contraction and relaxation, muscle tissue has three key functions: producing motion, providing stabilization, and generating heat.
Motion: Motion is obvious in movements such as walking and running, and in localized movements, such as grasping a pencil or nodding the head. These movements rely on the integrated functioning of bones, joints, and skeletal muscles. Stabilizing body positions and regulating the volume of cavities in the body: Besides producing movements, skeletal muscle contractions maintain the body in stable positions, such as standing or sitting.
Postural muscles display sustained contractions when a person is awake, for example, partially contracted neck muscles hold the head upright. In addition, the volumes of the body cavities are regulated through the contractions of skeletal muscles. For example muscles of respiration regulate the volume of the thoracic cavity during the process of breathing.
Thermo genesis generation of heat. As skeletal muscle contracts to perform work, a by-product is heat. Physiologic Characteristics of muscle tissue Muscle tissue has four principal characteristics that enable it to carry out its functions and thus contribute to homeostasis. Excitability irritability , a property of both muscle and nerve cells neurons , is the ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signal called action potentials impulses.
For example, the stimuli that trigger action potentials are chemicals-neurotransmitters, released by neurons, hormones distributed by the blood. Contractility is the ability of muscle tissue to shorten and thicken contract , thus generating force to do work.
Muscles contract in response to one or more muscle action potentials. Extensibility means that the muscle can be extended stretched without damaging the tissue. Most skeletal muscles are arranged in opposing pairs.
While one is contracting, the other not only relaxed but also usually is being stretched. Elasticity means that muscle tissue tends to return to its original shape after contraction or extension. Connective Tissue Component A skeletal muscle is an organ composed mainly of striated muscle cells and connective tissue. Each skeletal muscle has two parts; the connective tissue sheath that extend to form specialized structures that aid in attaching the muscle to bone and the fleshy part the belly or gaster.
The extended specialized structure may take the form of a cord, called a tendon; alternatively, a broad sheet called an aponeurosis may attach muscles to bones or to other muscles, as in the abdomen or across the top of the skull. A connective tissue sheath called facia surrounds and separates muscles Figure Connective tissue also extends into the muscle and divides it into numerous muscle bundles fascicles.
There are three connective tissue components that cover a skeletal muscle tissue. These are: 1. Microscopic structures The muscle bundles are composed of many elongated muscle cells called muscle fibres. Each muscle fibre is a cylindrical cell containing several nuclei located immediately beneath the cell membrane sarcolemma.
The cytoplasm of each muscle fibre sarcoplasm is filled with myofibrils. Each myofibril is a thread-like structure that extends from one end of the muscle fibre to the other. Myofibrils consist of two major kinds of protein fibres: actins or thin myofilaments, and myosin or thick myofilaments. The actins and myosin myofilaments form highly ordered units called sarcomers, which are joined end-to-end to form the myofibrils see Figure Sarcomere is a structural and functional unit of muscle tissue.
The ends of a sarcomere are a network of protein fibres, which form the Z-lines when the sarcomere is viewed from side. The Z-lines form an attachment site for actins myofilaments. The arrangement of the actin and myosin myofilaments in a sarcomere gives the myofibril a banded appearance because the myofibril appears darker where the actin and myosin myofilaments overlap.
The alternating light I-band and dark A-band areas of the sarcomers are responsible for striation banding pattern seen in skeletal muscle cells observed through the microscope. The T-tubules contain interstitial fluid and do not open into the interior of the muscle fibre.
Within the sarcoplasm of the muscle fibre there is an extensive network of branching and anastomosing channels, which forms the sarcoplasmic reticulum this structure is a modified endoplasmic reticulum.
The channels of the sarcoplasmic reticulum lay in close contact around the ends of T-tubules, and contain stores of calcium.
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