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Predictable travel from home to gate. An algorithm is de ned as a oating object like gures. During your SIE exam prep, be honest with yourself about how much knowledge you have going in. A percent decrease. The teaching and learning of other modern languages are discussed when appropriate. Most sections of each chapter start with focusing questions and a display of defining keywords, and end with discus- sion topics and further reading.
Contact with the language teaching classroom is maintained in this book chiefly through the discussion of published coursebooks and syllabuses, usually for teach- ing English. Even if good teachers use books only as a jumping-off point, they can provide a window into many classrooms. The books and syllabuses cited are taken from countries ranging from Germany to Japan to Cuba, though inevitably the bias is towards coursebooks published in England for reasons of accessibility. Since many modern language teaching coursebooks are depressingly similar in orientation, the examples of less familiar approaches have often been taken from older coursebooks.
This book talks about only a fraction of the SLA research on a given topic, often presenting only one or two of the possible approaches. It concentrates on those based on ideas about language, that is, applied linguistics, rather than those com- ing from psychology or education.
Nevertheless it covers more areas of SLA research than most books that link SLA research to language teaching, for exam- ple, taking in pronunciation, vocabulary and writing, among other areas. It uses ideas from the wealth of research produced in the past twenty years or so, rather than just the most recent.
Sometimes it has to go beyond the strict borders of SLA research itself to include topics such as the position of English in the world and the power of native speakers over their language. The book is linked to an extensive website: www.
This contains pages for this book, such as questionnaires, displays, language data, summaries, lists of links, and so on, as well as a great deal of other SLA informa- tion not specific to the book. The pages can be downloaded and printed. The main entry point is the index. The mouse symbol in the book indicates that there is a particular aspect available online; the more general pages are not signalled every time they might be useful.
Explanations of keywords throughout the book are available in the keyword glossary on the website. Common assumptions of language teaching 3 Box 1.
During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, a revolution took place that affected much of the language teaching used in the twentieth century. The revolt was primarily against the stultifying methods of grammatical explanation and translation of texts which were then popular. In its place, the pioneers of the new language teaching, such as Henry Sweet and Otto Jespersen, emphasized the spoken language and the naturalness of language learning, and insisted on the importance of using the second language in the classroom rather than the first Howatt, These beliefs are largely still with us today, either explicitly instilled into teachers or just taken for granted.
The questionnaire in Box 1. If you agreed with most of the statements in Box 1. Let us consider them in more detail. The teaching methods within which speech was most dominant were the audio-lin- gual and audio-visual methods, which insisted on presenting spoken language from tape before the students encountered the written form. Later methods have continued to emphasize the spoken language. Communication in the commu- nicative method is usually through speech rather than writing.
The total physical response method uses spoken, not written, commands, and storytelling, not story reading. The importance of speech has been reinforced by many linguists who claim that speech is the primary form of language, and that writing depends on speech.
Few teaching methods in the twentieth century saw speech and writing as being equally important. The problem with accepting this assumption, as we see in Chapter 5, is that written language has distinct characteristics of its own, which are not just pale reflections of the spoken language.
Vital as the spoken language may be, it should not divert attention from those aspects of writing that are crucial for students. Spelling mistakes, for instance, probably count more against an L2 user in everyday life than a foreign accent. Assumption 2: Teachers and students should use the second language rather than the first language in the classroom The emphasis on the second language in the classroom was also part of the revolt against the older methods by the late nineteenth-century methodologists, most famously through the direct method and the Berlitz method, with their rejection of translation as a teaching technique.
One argu- ment for avoiding the first language is that children learning their first language do not have a second language available, which is irrelevant in itself — infants do not play golf, but we teach it to adults. Another argument is that students should keep the two languages separate in their minds rather than linking them; this adopts a compartmentalized view of the languages in the same mind, which is not supported by SLA research, as we see everywhere in this book.
Assumption 3: Teachers should avoid explicit discussion of grammar The ban on explicit teaching of grammar to students also formed part of the rejec- tion of the old-style methods. Grammar could be practised through drills or incor- porated within communicative exercises, but should not be explained to students.
While grammatical rules could be demonstrated though substitution tables or sit- uational cues, actual rules should not be mentioned. The old arguments against grammatical explanation were, on the one hand, the question of conscious under- standing — knowing some aspect of language consciously is no guarantee that you can use it in speech — and, on the other, the time involved — speaking by con- sciously using all the grammatical rules means each sentence may take several minutes to produce, as those of us who learnt Latin by this method will bear witness.
Chapter 2 describes how grammar has recently made something of a comeback. Assumption 4: The aim of language teaching is to make students like native speakers One of the assumptions that is most taken for granted is that the model for lan- guage teaching is the native speaker.
Virtually all teachers, students and bilinguals have assumed that success is measured by how close a learner gets to a native speaker, in grammar, vocabulary and particularly pronunciation.
Passing for a native is the ultimate test of success. As we shall see, many of these background assumptions are questioned by SLA research and have sometimes led to undesirable consequences. Assumption 1, that students learn best through spoken language, leads to undervaluing the features spe- cific to written language, as we see in Chapter 6. Assumption 3, on not teaching grammar, explicitly implies a particular model of grammar and learning, rather than the many alternatives shown in Chapter 2.
The native speaker assumption 4 has come under increasing attack in recent years, as described in Chapter 10, on the grounds that a native speaker goal is not appropriate for all circumstances and is unattainable for the vast majority of students. Nevertheless, even if for the most part these assumptions are unstated, they continue to be part of the basis of language teaching, however the winds of fashion blow.
Why do you think this is so? Keywords Contrastive Analysis: this research method compared the descriptions of two languages in grammar or pronunciation to discover the differences between them; these were then seen as difficulties for the students that needed to be overcome Error Analysis EA : this method studied the language produced by L2 learners to establish its peculiarities, which it tried to explain in terms of the first lan- guage and other sources As this book is based on SLA research, the obvious question is: what is SLA research?
People have been interested in the acquisition of second languages since at least the ancient Greeks, but the discipline itself only came into being around , gathering together language teachers, psychologists and linguists. Together these led to SLA research concentrating on the learner as the central element in the learning situation.
In the early days much attention focused on the language the learner produced. Now people started to get interested in the qualities that learners brought to second language acquisition and the choices they made when learning and using the language. And they started to pay attention to the whole context in which the learner is placed, whether the temporary context of the conversation or the more permanent situation in their own society or the society whose language they are learning.
Nowadays SLA research is an extremely rich and diverse subject, drawing on aspects of linguistics, psychology, sociology and education. Hence it has many aspects and theories that are often incompatible.
Most introductory books on sec- ond language acquisition will attest to the great interest that SLA researchers have in grammar.
Yet many researchers are concerned exclusively with phonology or vocabulary, with their own specialist books and conferences. The present book tries to be eclectic in presenting a variety of areas and approaches that seem relevant for language teaching rather than a single unified approach. Einstein, Nabokov. Research clearly shows L2 users have an advantage in several cognitive areas; they think differently and perceive the world differently.
This benefit is dis- cussed in Chapter The relationship between the two languages in the brain is now starting to be understood by neurolinguists, yet the diversity of effects from brain injury is still largely inexplicable. The effects on language are different in almost every bilingual patient; some aphasics recover the first language they learnt, some the language they were using at the time of injury, some the language they use most, and so on.
Learners all seem to go through similar stages of development of a second lan- guage, whether in grammar or pronunciation, as we see in other chapters. This has been confirmed in almost all studies looking at the sequence of acquisition. Yet, as in this case, we are still not always sure of the reason for the sequence. The knowledge of the first language is affected in subtle ways by the second lan- guage that you know, so that there are many giveaways to the fact that you speak other languages, whether in grammar, pronunciation or vocabulary.
L2 users no longer have the same knowledge of their first language as the monolingual native speaker. Different cultures think in different ways. The proof of the teaching is in the learning. One crucial factor in L2 learn- ing is what the students bring with them into the classroom.
With the exception of young bilingual children, L2 learners have fully formed personalities and minds when they start learning the second language, and these have profound effects on their ways of learning and on how successful they are. Some students see learning the second language as extending the repertoire of what they can do; others see it as a threat. The different ways in which students tackle learning also affect their success. What is happening in the class is not equally productive for all the students because their minds work in different ways.
The differences between individuals do not disappear when they come through the classroom door. Students base what they do on their previous experience of learning and using language. They do not start from scratch without any background or predisposition to learn language in one way or another. Students also have much in common by virtue of possessing the same human minds. SLA research helps in understanding how apparently similar students react differently to the same teaching technique, while revealing the problems that all students share.
Understanding how teaching methods and techniques work Teaching methods usually incorporate a view of L2 learning, whether implicitly or explicitly. Grammar-translation teaching, for example, emphasizes explana- tions of grammatical points because this fits in with its view that L2 learning is the acquisition of conscious knowledge.
Communicative teaching methods require the students to talk to each other because they see L2 learning as growing out of the give-and-take of communication. For the most part, teaching methods have developed these ideas of learning independently from SLA research. They are not based, for example, on research into how learners use grammatical explanations or how they learn by talking to each other.
The reasons why a teaching technique works or does not work depend on many factors. A teacher who wants to use a particular technique will benefit by knowing what it implies in terms of language learning and language processing, the type of student for whom it is most appropriate, and the ways in which it fits into the classroom situation. Suppose the teacher wants to use a task in which the students spontaneously exchange information.
This implies that students are learning by communicating, that they are prepared to speak out in the classroom and that the educational context allows for learning from fellow students rather than from the teacher alone. SLA research has something to say about all of these, as we shall see. Understanding the goals of language teaching The reasons why the second language is being taught depend on overall educa- tional goals, which vary from one country to another and from one period to another.
One avowed goal of language teaching is to help people to think better — brain training and logical thinking. Many of these have been explored in particular SLA research. For example, the goal of brain training is supported by evidence that people who know two languages think more flexibly than monolinguals Landry, This information is vital when considering the viability and implementation of communicative goals for a particular group of students.
SLA research can help define the goals of language teaching, assess how achievable they may be, and contribute to their achieve- ment. These issues are debated in Chapter SLA research is a scientific discipline that tries to describe how people learn and use another language. It cannot decide issues that are outside its domain. While it may contribute to the understanding of teaching goals, it is itself neutral between them.
It is not for the teacher, the methodologist or any other outsider to dictate whether a language should be taught for communication, for brain training, or whatever purpose, but for the society or the individual student to decide.
Another bans any reference to English-speaking culture in textbooks because English is for international communication, not for developing relationships with England or the USA.
A third sees language teaching as a way of developing honesty and the values of good citizenship; a speaker at a TESOL con- ference in New York proclaimed that the purpose of TESOL was to create good American citizens to the consternation of the British and Canadians present in the audience.
SLA research as a discipline neither commends nor denies the value of these goals, since they depend on moral or political values rather than science. But it can offer advice on how these goals may best be achieved and what their costs may be, particularly in balancing the needs of society and of the individual. Teachers need to see the classroom from many angles, not just from that of SLA research. SLA research reveals some of the strengths and weaknesses of a particular teaching method or technique and it provides information that can influence and guide teaching.
It does not provide a magic solution to teaching problems in the form of a patented method with an attractive new brand name. Insights from SLA research can help teachers, whatever their methodological slant.
Partly it is at the more specific level of the choice of teaching methods, the construction of teach- ing materials, or the design and execution of teaching techniques. The links between SLA research and language teaching made here are suggestions of what can be done rather than accounts of what has been done or orders about what should be done.
Since SLA research is still in its early days, some of the ideas presented here are based on a solid agreed foundation; others are more controversial or speculative. While this book has been written for language teachers, this is not the only way in which SLA research can influence language teaching. Other routes for the application of SLA research include: 1 Informing the students themselves about SLA research so they can use it in their learning.
We shall meet some attempts at this in var- ious chapters here, but again, SLA research has not usually been the basis for syllabuses. Some coursebook writers do indeed try to use ideas from SLA research, as we shall see.
Often these indirect routes may have a greater influence on teaching than the teacher. Some background ideas of SLA research 11 1. This section pres- ents some of these core ideas. SLA research is independent of language teaching Earlier approaches to L2 learning often asked the question: which teaching meth- ods give the best results? Is an oral method better than a translation method? Is a communicative method better than a situational one?
Then teaching methods can be evaluated in the light of what has been discovered, and teaching can be based on adequate ideas of learning. The first step is to study learning itself; the second step is to see how teaching relates to learning, the sequence mostly followed in this book. The teacher should be told from the start that there is no easy link between SLA research and language teaching methods, despite the claims made in some course- books or by some researchers.
The language teaching approaches of the past 50 years, by and large, have originated from teaching methodologists, not from SLA research. The new field did not blindly take over the concepts previously used for talking about L2 learning. Language teachers, for example, often contrast second language teaching which teaches the language for immediate use within the same country, say, the teaching of French to immigrants in France with foreign language teaching which teaches the language for long-term future uses and may take place any- where, but most often in countries where it is not an everyday medium, say, the teaching of French in England.
While this distinction is often convenient, it can- not be taken for granted that learners in these two situations necessarily learn in two different ways without proper research evidence.
Indeed, later we shall look at many other dimensions to the learning situation see Chapter Krashen, a. A more idiosyncratic use here is the distinction between L2 user and L2 learner. An L2 user is anybody making an actual use of the second language for real-life purposes outside the classroom; an L2 learner is anybody acquiring a second lan- guage.
In some cases a person is both user and learner — when an L2 learner of English in London steps out of the classroom, they immediately become an L2 user of English. The distinction is important for many countries where learners do not become users for many years, if ever. The prime motivation for the term L2 user, however, is the feeling that it is demeaning to call someone who has func- tioned in an L2 environment for years a learner rather than a user, as if their task were never finished.
We would not dream of calling a year-old adult native speaker an L1 learner, so we should not call a person who has been using a second language for 20 years an L2 learner! The different spheres of SLA research and language teaching mean that the con- cepts of language they use are often different.
The danger is when both fields use the same terms with different meanings. The type of grammar used in SLA research has little to do with the tried and true collection of grammatical ideas for teaching that teachers have evolved, as will be illustrated in Chapter 2. L2 learning is independent of L1 acquisition Teaching methods have often been justified in terms of how children learn their first language, without investigating L2 learning directly.
The audio-lingual method of teaching, for instance, was based primarily on particular views of how children learn their first language. Some background ideas of SLA research 13 There is no intrinsic reason, however, why learning a second language should be the same as learning a first. Language, according to Michael Tomasello , requires the ability to recognize that other people have points of view. People learning a second language already know how to mean and know that other people have minds of their own.
L2 learning is inevitably differ- ent in this respect from L1 learning. The similarities between learning the first and second languages have to be established rather than taken for granted. In some respects, the two forms of learning may well be rather similar, in others quite differ- ent — after all, the outcome is often very different.
Evidence about how the child learns a first language has to be interpreted with caution in L2 learning and seldom in itself provides a basis for language teaching.
L2 learners, in fact, are different from children learning a first language since there is already one language present in their minds. There is no way that the L2 learner can become a monolingual native speaker by definition.
However strong the similar- ities may be between L1 acquisition and L2 learning, the presence of the first lan- guage is the inescapable difference in L2 learning. So our beliefs about how children learn their first language cannot be transferred automatically to a second language; some may work, some may not. The first language helps learners when it has elements in common with the second language and hinders them when they dif- fer.
The explanation is that subjects may be omitted in Spanish, but they may not be left out in French. Nor is it usually difficult to decide from accent alone whether a foreigner speaking English comes from France, Brazil or Japan.
But the importance of such transfer has to be looked at with an open mind. Various aspects of L2 learning need to be investigated before it can be decided how and when the first language is involved in the learning of the second. Though transfer from the first language indeed turns out to be important, often in unexpected ways, its role needs to be established through properly balanced research rather than the first language taking the blame for everything that goes wrong in learning a second.
In other words, this is what the student might say if he or she were a native speaker. But something has gone drastically wrong with the sentence. Perhaps the student has not yet encountered the appropriate forms in English or perhaps he or she is transferring constructions from the first lan- guage. Sometimes this comparison is justified, as native- like speech is often a goal for the student.
This is what many students want to be, however, not what they are at the moment. It is judging the students by what they are not — native speakers. SLA research insists that learners have the right to be judged by the standards appropri- ate for them, not by those used for natives. At each stage learners have their own language systems. The nature of these learner systems may be very different from that of the target language. Even if they are idiosyncratic and constantly changing, they are nonetheless systematic.
This is shown in Figure 1. Their mistakes were minor irritants rather than major haz- ards. In my own view, not yet shared by the SLA research field as a whole, the inde- pendent grammars assumption does not go far enough. But these languages coexist in the same mind; one person knows both. Hence we need a name to refer to the overall knowledge that com- bines both the first language and the L2 interlanguage, namely multi-competence Cook, — the knowledge of two languages in the same mind shown in Figure 1.
The lack of this concept has meant SLA research has still treated the two languages separately rather than as different facets of the same person, as we see from time to time in the rest of this book. For example, an individual native speaker may know the English language in the psychological sense, but probably knows only a fraction of the words in any dictionary of the English language; students often feel frustrated because they measure their knowledge of a language against the grammar book and the dictionary Lang2 rather than against what an individual speaker knows Lang5.
Box 1. Have you ever checked to see if this is really the case? Do you have a right to impose the goals you choose on them?
What evidence do you have for its success? If you were their teacher, how would you correct them? I wold like to give you my best congratulate. Arabic e I please you very much you allow me to stay with you this Christmas. Useful books with similar purposes but covering slightly different approaches to second language acquisition are: Lightbown and Spada How Languages are Learned and Cohen Language Learning. More information is available on the website for this book, www.
Learning and teaching different types of grammar 2 A language has patterns and regularities which are used to convey meaning, some of which make up its grammar. The glossary on page 44 defines some grammatical terms. Many linguists consider grammar to be the central part of the language in the Lang5 sense of the knowledge in an individual mind, around which other parts such as pronunciation and vocabulary revolve. However important the other components of language may be in themselves, they are connected to each other through grammar.
Grammar is the most unique aspect of language. It has features that do not occur in other mental processes and that are not apparently found in animal lan- guages.
According to linguists though psychologists often disagree , grammar is learnt in different ways from anything else that people learn. This chapter first looks at different types of grammar and then selects some areas of grammatical research into L2 learning to represent the main approaches. What is grammar? This is called prescriptive grammar because it prescribes what people ought to do. Modern grammarians have mostly avoided prescriptive gram- mar because they see their job as describing what the rules of language are, just as the physicist says what the laws of physics are.
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